Bonding

Simulations

1970-01-01T02:00:00+02:00

From bonds into molecules

James Bond may be the most famous of all bonds. In this simulation, you will learn about covalent bonding between nonmetals.

Ionic bonding

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Sodium chloride, or table salt, features an ionic bond between a sodium ion Na⁺ and a chloride ion Cl⁻.

Copper sulfate, or CuSO₄, features an ionic bond between a copper ion Cu²⁺ and a sulfate ion SO₄²⁻.

Both of these compounds dissolve easily in water.

Covalent bonding

2017-09-02T10:03:10+03:00

Burning methane releases a large amount of energy because the covalent bonds between its constituents, carbon and hydrogen, are very strong. This, however, makes controlling its reactions difficult.

Metallic bonding

2017-08-05T17:51:30+03:00

Metals reside on the left side of the periodic table, and as such, have few electrons on their outermost shell. The cadmium sample above is shiny because the neighboring cadmium atoms compete for one another's electrons, leaving little space between atoms and giving metals their luster.

Hydrogen bonding

2017-08-05T18:47:23+03:00

Water consists of both oxygen and hydrogen atoms. As an oxygen atom has six positive protons and a hydrogen atom only has one, the oxygen of a water molecule attracts negative electrons more than its hydrogen.

As a result, a water molecule is more negatively charged around its oxygen part and more positively charged around its hydrogen. These differences attract each other, and the Mickey Mouse shape compiles water molecules into hexagonal structures.

From elements to bonds

2017-09-02T10:03:57+03:00

Chemical reactions take place when elements or compounds link together by exchanging electrons. Only electrons on the outermost shell, or valence shell, may be exchanged, and the electrons on the inner shells stay put at all times.

These links, called bonds, explain why table salt dissolves in water, why most snowflakes have six angles, and why most metals are shiny. The three simplest ways of bonding are:

ionic bonds between a metal and a nonmetal or a molecule, like in table salt
covalent bonds between a nonmetal and another nonmetal, like in gas stove methane
metal bonds between a metal and another metal, like in a nugget of cadmium

The more complex include:

dipole-dipole bonds that appear between molecules that have accumulation of charge somewhere within themselves
hydrogen bonds, a special case of dipole-dipole bonds with hydrogen involved

From bonds to reactions

2023-10-02T15:22:14+03:00

The key to understanding chemical reactions is the octet rule. It states that every atom wishes to achieve a full valence shell, or in layman's terms, wishes to fill its outermost shell with electrons. There is little to remember, as the first shell takes at most two electrons (goal for H and He) and all subsequent shells take eight.

Helium He has two valence electrons. It has achieved the octet state without losing or gaining electrons.
Sodium Na has a single valence electron. It has two alternatives: lose one or gain seven electrons. It chooses the easier and wishes to lose one electron.
Calcium Ca has two valence electrons. It has two alternatives: lose two or gain six electrons. It chooses the easier and wishes to lose two electrons.
Oxygen O has six valence electrons. It has two alternatives: lose six or gain two electrons. It chooses the easier and wishes to gain two electrons.

From this matchmaking example, we have found a possible reaction! A calcium atom wishes to lose two electrons, and an oxygen atom wishes to gain as many. Therefore, they form an ionic bond and react to form calcium oxide CaO in a bright flash. In other words, Ca + O → CaO.

From reactions to compounds

2018-05-31T09:25:02+03:00

Chemistry is all about predicting how different elements and compounds behave and react together. The rule of thumb is that:

a metal reacts with a nonmetal to form a salt with ionic bonds Ionic bonding
a nonmetal reacts with another nonmetal to form a molecular compound with covalent bonds Covalent bonding
metals behave in a different fashion, with an exception of the amalgams of mercury in dental filling Metallic bonding

In addition, advanced reactions include:

acid-base neutralisation, which is why baking soda alleviates heartburn Acid-base reactions
galvanic corrosion, which is why boats rust in seawater Galvanic corrosion